Chittorgarh pronunciation (help·info) (also Chittor, Chittaur, or Chittaurgarh) is a city and a municipality in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of theBanas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgharh District and a former capital of the Sisodia clans of Rajputs of Mewar. The city of Chittaurgarh is located on the banks of river Gambhiri and Berach. The district was bifurcated and a new district namely Pratap Garh was created with certain portion taken from Udaipur district in the newly created district of Pratap Garh. Fiercely independent, the fort of Chittor was under siege thrice and each time they fought bravely and thrice Jauhar was committed by the ladies and children, first led by Rani Padmini, and later by Rani KarnavatiThe famous warriers namely Gora and Badal in war against Allaudin Khalji (1303 AD)has become legendary. The sacrifice of Jaimal and Phata in war against Mughals (1568 AD) was so great that the Mughal Empror Akbar has installed their statues in the fort of Agra. It has also been land of worship for Meera.[1] Chittorgarh is home to the Chittorgarh Fort, the largest fort in Asia.
* Vijay Stambha or "Tower of Victory" Chittorgarh is the epitome of ChattariRajput (Indian warrior caste) pride, romance and spirit, for people of Chittor always chose death before surrendering against anyone. It reverberates with history of heroism and sacrifice that is evident from the tales still sung by the bards of Rajasthan. Though it can now be called a ruined citadel there is much more to this huge fort. It is a symbol of all that was brave, true and noble in the glorious Rajput tradition.
View of the Tower of Victory, 1927 Historically, it is considered that Chittor was built by the Maurya dynasty in the 7th century AD.[citation needed] It was then named Chitrakut after Chitrangada Mori, a Rajput chieftain as inscribed on ancient Mewari coins. The fort is surrounded by a circular wall which has seven huge gates before one can enter inside the main fort area. Some accounts say that the Mori dynasty was in possession of the fort whenBappa Rawal the founder of the kingdom of Mewar seized Chittor garh (Chittor fort) and made it his capital in 734 AD. While some other accounts say Bappa Rawal received it as a part of the dowry after marriage with the last Solanki princess. After that date his descendants ruled Mewar, which stretched from Gujarat to Ajmer, until the 16th century. Chittor was one of the most contested seats of power in India with probably some of the most glorious battles being fought over its possession. It is famous in the annals of the Mewar Dynasty as its first capital (prior to this, the Guhilots, forerunners of the Mewar Dynasty, ruled from Idar, Bhomat, and Nagda), and renowned in India's long struggle for freedom. By tradition, it remained the Mewar capital for 834 years. With only brief interruptions, the fort has always remained in possession of the Sisodias of the Guhilot (or Gehlot/Guhila) clan of Rajputs, who descended from Bappa Rawal. The first attack was by Alauddin Khilji in 1303 AD, who was enamoured by the beauty of Padmini of which he had only heard. Rani Padmini preferred death to abduction and dishonour and committed jauhar (an act of self immolation by leaping into a large fire) along with all the other ladies of the fort.[2] All the men left the fort in saffron robes to fight the enemy unto death. Chittorgarh was captured in 1303 AD by Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi who led a huge army. Elderly people then had the responsibility to raise the children. It was recaptured in 1326 by the young Hammir Singh, a scion of the same Gehlot clan. The dynasty (and clan) fathered by him came to be known by the name Sisodia after the village where he was born. Rana Kumbha (1433–68) was a versatile man a brilliant, poet and musician. He built mewar up to a position of assailable military strength building a chain of thirty forts that girdled the kingdom But, perhaps more important was a patron of the arts to rival Lorenzo de Medici, and he made Chittorgarh a dazzling cultural center whose fame spread right across Hindustan. By the 16th century, Mewar had become the leading Rajput state. Rana Sanga of Mewar led the combined Rajput forces against the Mughal emperor Babur in 1527, but was defeated at the Battle of Khanua. Later in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat besieged the fort causing immense carnage. It is said that again just like in the case of Jauhar led by Padmini in 1303, all 32,000 men then living in the fort donned the saffron robes of martyrdom and rode out to face certain death in the war, and their women folk committed Jauhar led by Rani Karnawati. The ultimate sacrifice for freedom, Jauhar was again performed for the third time after the Mughal Emperor Akbar captured Chittorgarh in 1568. The capital was moved west to Udaipur, in the foothills of the Aravalli Range, where Rana Udai Singh II (the young heir apparent) had established a residence in 1559. Udaipur remained the capital of Mewar until it acceded unto the union of India in 1947, and Chittorgarh gradually lost its political importance. Bhumihars along with others, in some places,[58] were also involved in anti-Muslim communal violence during the Partition of India.[58] and during the 1893 Anti-Muslim riots.[59] Chittorgarh is also famous for its association with two very widely known historical figures of India. The first is,Meera Bai the most famous female Hindu spiritual poetess whose compositions are still popular throughout North India. Her poems follow the Bhakti tradition and she is considered to be most passionate worshipper of lord Krishna. Folklore says that her love for Krishna was epitomized by her final disappearance in the temple of Krishna in Dwarka. She is believed to have entered the sanctum of the temple in a state of singing ecstasy after which the sanctum doors are believed to have closed on their own and when later opened, the sari of Mirabai was seen enwrapped around the idol of Lord Krishna, symbolizing the culmination of her union with her Lord. The great Maharana Pratap, son of Rana Udai Singh II who is regarded as a personification of the values Rajputs cherish and die for. He took an oath to spend his life living in the jungles and fighting until he could realize his dream of reconquering Chittorgarh from Akbar (and thus reclaiming the glory of Mewar). It was the dream greatly cherished by Maharana Pratap, and he spent all his life to achieve this goal. He underwent hardships and a life of eating breads made of grass while fighting his lifelong battle. Maharana Pratap is the greatest hero in the eyes of the Raputs of Mewar. In the absolute dark era of Rajput history, Maharana Pratap alone stood firmly for his honour and dignity, never compromising his honour for safety. With the reputation of a brave man with great character even among his enemies, he died free in 1597. Chittorgarh remains replete with historic associations and holds a very special place in the hearts of Rajputs, as it was a bastion of the clan at a time when every other stronghold had succumbed to invasion. It is often called as the "Bhakti aur Shakti ki nagari" (land of devotion and strength). The fort and the city of Chittorgarh also hosts the biggest Rajput festival "Jauhar Mela". It takes place annually on the anniversary of one of the jauhars, not the one by Padmini which is most famous. This festival is to commemorate the bravery of Rajput ancestors and all three Jauhars which happened at Chittorgarh. A huge number of Rajputs which include the descendants of most of the princely families do a procession to celebrate the Jauhar. The fort at Chittorgarh also contains the ancient and beautiful temple to Goddess Kali called the Kalika Mata Temple. Geography
Chittorgarh is located at 24.88°N 74.63°E.[3] It has an average elevation of 394 metres (1292 ft). Demographics
As of 2001 India census,[4] Chittaurgarh had a population of 1,803,524. Males constitute 50.9% of the population and females 49.1%. According to census 2001 [5] Religion wise hindu are 92% of the total population.Scheduled caste and scheduled tribes constitute 13.9% and 21.53% which is major portion of both total population and hindu population. chittaurgarh district has litracy rate of 54%. Transport
The completed Golden Quadrilateral highway system will pass through Chittorgarh, connecting it to much of the rest of India. Also crossing the East West Corridor (Express Highway). The Chittorgarh is situated at National Highway No. 76 & 79, both the Highways are crossing at Chittorgarh. It is well connected by rail with Jaipur via Bhilwara and Ajmer, Jodhpur via Ajmer, [Indore Junction BG]], Bhopal, Indore Mhow,Ujjain, Ratlam, Nagda Junction, Ajmer and Fatehabad by many Broad gauge trains. The city is also connected to Udaipur City via Mavli Jn. It is also connected to Kota via Bundi. Thus, Chittaur Garh is a major rail junction of south Rajasthan. Some weekly trains to Hyderabad and Kolakata are passing through this station. The town still lacks connectivity to Bikaner, Ahmedabad, Jabalpur and Nagpur, so in order to catch trains for further cities one has to reach either Kota, Nagda or Ratlam. Places of Interest
Chittorgarh Fort The Chittorgarh Fort seated on a 180 metre hill, covers an expanse of 700 acres (2.8 km2). It was constructed by the Mauryans in the 7th century AD. There is also a belief that it was constructed by Bhima of the Pancha Pandavas. This fort was the citadel of many great Rajput warriors such as Gora, Badal,Rana Kumbha, Maharana Pratap, Jaimal, Patta, etc. Kalika Mata Temple Kalika Mata Temple was originally built in the 8th century for Sun God and was later converted to a temple for mother Goddess, Kali in the 14th century. Vijay Stambh Vijay Stambha, is a huge nine storey tower which was built by Maharana Kumbha to commemorate his victory over the Muslim rulers of Malwa and Gujarat in 1440. The tower is 122 ft (37 m) high and stands on a 10 ft (3.0 m) high base. There are sculptures and carvings on the exterior walls of the tower. The tower is visible from any section of the town below. And for reaching tower top one have to climb 157 steps, one can take great view of the surroundings. The inside walls of the tower are carved with images of Gods, weapons, etc.[6] Kirti Stambh Kirti Stambh is tower is dedicated to Rishabha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism. It was built by a merchant and is decorated with figures form the Jain pantheon. Rana Kumbha's Palace Rana Kumbha's Palace is near the Vijay Stambh. This is the birthplace of Maharana Udai Singh the founder of Udaipur. His life was saved by the heroic act of the maid Panna Dhay, who replaced her son in place of the prince & consequently her son was killed by Banbir. She carried the prince away to safety in a fruit basket. Rani Meera Bai also lived in this palace. This is the place where Rani Padmini committed jauhar with the other ladies in one of the underground cellars.[7] Rani Padmini's Palace Rani Padmini's Palace is from which Alauddin Khalji(one of the ruler of Khalji dynasty during sultanate rule over India) was allowed to watch a reflection of the Rani by replacing the mirror in such an angle that even if he turned back he could not see the room. Khilji had been warned by the rani's husband Rawal Ratan Singh that if he turned back they would cut his neck.[8] See also
"President of CSN, president of the board and vice president of Fiesp.
The question of technical education was a very controversial issue during the Brazilian military regime from 1964 to 1984. The governments of the time always tried to encourage the professional education level médio.Os ideologues government supported the thesis that the formation of labor should be directed primarily to increase the productivity of the economy. It argued that the Brazilian cultural tradition imposed preferentially character humanistic curricular structures, some focused on technical and scientific training and nothing connected to the demands of the labor market.
From the perspective of public policy-makers in those years, the education should not be a commodity "superfluous" turned to the humanistic rather seen as the basic raw material production.
This formulation had a certain disdain for what was called "Brazilian cultural tradition", considering that culture itself would be a fine complement to leisure, and not a working tool.
This formulation was part of the context of the technocratic ideology of the military governments that politicians and political activity relegated to the background at the helm of the country all this displeased the forces that opposed the regime and, consequently, the idea of encouraging technical education wascountered by the opposition because it would be a way to promote political alienation in educational attainment.
Today, fortunately, that long ago that interfered with the ideological debate on this issue so important to the country, which is the training of professionals for entry into the labor market.
And there's good news about the expansion of education in this area. In 2011, according to estimates by the Department of Vocational and Technological Education of the Ministry of Education, enrollment in technical courses already represented 15% to 18% of total enrollments in high school, nearly double the percentage of five years ago. This means a quota of 1.5 million students in these courses.
The number is relevant, but well below that seen in countries with education focused on professional training, technical education which usually represent up to 40% of enrollments in high school.
In addition to expanding the number of enrollments, the challenge of these courses is the connection with the reality of the labor market, to meet with an offer of skilled labor to the current demand and also the future needs and strategic industrial policy in Brazil.
This is a challenge faced by federal and state institutes of technical education institutions and also managed the business of the industrial sector, such as Senai, the largest professional education and technology in Latin America, which qualifies each year 2.3 million people , 150 thousand level.
Investing in educational attainment of children and young people is one of the commitments of the industry of the state and Fiesp (Federation of Industries of São Paulo), an entity of which I have the honor of being the first vice president.
Value Initiative was the creation of the National Access to Technical Education and Employment (Pronatec), launched by President Rousseff in October, and whose first enrollment of 67,000 young people, were made last year.
From what is expected, a majority of seats will be offered by the Pronatec federal institutes and schools in the system S (Senai and Senac SESI). The good news from Pronatec are offering free training courses, including food for people in situations of social vulnerability, and the expansion of public funding for courses in private schools.
The deficiency in the training was felt by many industrial and service sectors in recent years, a time when the country, despite the international crisis, is in a phase of full employment.
The expansion of technical education for the training of labor demanded by the economy, therefore, should be celebrated. It is extremely necessary, but without contempt for humanistic, also fundamental to the cultural development of the country
CSN's chief executive, chairman of the board of directors of the company and the first vice president of Fiesp. "
I've never really been one for New Years Resolutions, so I'm setting goals.� These goals are going to be planned out over the year and you'll be able to keep track.� I decided to make this my first post, because I thought it would be nice to see how it fit into my 2012 being the "Best Year of My Life."
The main reason people fail their New Years Resolutions, is that they don't plan them out.� Successful people are planners, they sit down and plan out their life.� Not their entire life, but the important stuff.� It's very important to realize, that not everything in your life needs planned.� If you plan out everything, you won't have any fun doing it.
Let's face it, no one has every had anything to show for, or really been very successful, just living life on a whim.� Do you think that Bill gates became a Billionaire on a whim?� Do you think that Steve Jobs became a successful business man on a whim?� Do you think Warren Buffet became wealthy by sitting on his butt doing nothing?� If you answered yes to any of these questions, you might want to reread the questions and give it more thought.
As we settle into the new year, BlogFrog is more motivated than ever to bring you the ultimate platform for growing and engaging with your online community! So in the spirit of getting--and staying--in gear, here are a few updates that will keep your lively conversations and communities fresh through 2012 and beyond:
On the Horizon of Healthy Living
How does the Horizon Healthy Families Community celebrate the New Year? With a fresh look, brand new community leaders and updated community topics! This welcoming spot is the perfect place for sharing and discovering helpful tips for all your 2012 resolutions. Check out conversations going on right now around keeping your family active, time for yourself, cooking healthy meals, saving money, and much more. Plus, tell us why you pick Horizon Organic for your family and by replying, you'll be entered to win a $200 Target gift card--perfect for enjoying 2012 in style!
Calling all Bloggers!
For those of you interested in working with some of BlogFrog's top brand partners, we have two great opportunities for you this week! If you write a nutrition-, health- or fitness-focused blog or have recently become gluten-free, fill out our Health & Fitness Blogger Form to be considered for an exciting month-long opportunity with a possible extension. We're also looking for bloggers who are snowbirds, RV-ers or just plain outdoorsy! If you fit that description and are also interested in a month-long opportunity, fill out our Outdoor Blogger Form here.
Know a friend who might be right for the job? Forward along this email--we'd love to hear from them!
Blogger Highlight
There are a lot of things we love about Laugh With Us Blog and Community, and on top of the hilarious and thoughtful stories about these five adorable siblings, we also love Esther, the mastermind behind this knee-slapping blog. Not only do her stories, tips and insights inspire us to be better parents and people, she's a BlogFrog pro, too! Check out her most recent conversation on getting more traffic to your community, and join her every Monday to link up with other BlogFroggers.
Are you on Pinterest? So are we!
We love connecting in new ways to all our favorite bloggers and readers, especially when they're as creative, fun and fashionable as you! Follow us on Pinterest to find out what we're up to, and we can't wait to discover what you've been pinning!
Thanks for getting this year off to a great start, BlogFroggers, and we're thrilled to see what the rest of 2012 has in store for your communities, blogs and social networks!
Remember, BlogFrog is your product. We are just building it for you! Happy BlogFrogging!
P.S. If you're interested in working with BlogFrog on branded campaigns, fill out our Blog Partner form so we can contact you for upcoming opportunities.
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Welcome to the “State of the Avenue” for January 2012. First of all, happy new year to everyone, both on Empire Avenue and those that are not. I hope it has been a peaceful holiday season for you and your loved ones. 2012 is set to be a year of much fun here on the Avenue. We started 2011 building on the initial idea of the Social Stock Market and we ended 2011 having created a very powerful engagement platform centered around the currency created by your social activity and engagement. Missions, which we launched in beta just 6 weeks ago, are an example of how to use that currency for engagement. I’d like to lay out some of our 2012 goals and what you can expect from us, though I will admit we are not laying all our cards on the table here; there will be many surprises along the way.
Missions. We will slowly open up Missions to the world. Initially we wanted a faster rollout, but we decided that it is best to roll out access in stages, as we iterate through the feature set to make them truly engaging. We have our eyes set on better targeting and some very innovative ideas around Missions and rewarding actual engagement in a task. For those that have expressed a desire for us to open up Missions completely, please be patient; we do want to get this right. We will have a blog post on the next iteration of Missions this week.
Networks and Content. The value of an “Eave” is tied to engagement online and what you do *anywhere* in a social capacity. We will continue to add networks and improve the connections we have. Google+, Pinterest and Tumblr are very high on our list, as we continue to expand the ways you can earn virtual currency for the engagement you create in the online world. We will be working on new ways to show you the great content that is all around you, as well as highlighting relevant people you might want to connect with based on the content they’re creating.
Social Stock Market. The fundamental driver of our currency and economy comes from the investments you make on our Social Stock Market. In 2012 we will make the Market a little easier to understand, so that it is even more engaging to new people. We will also roll out changes that will allow the economy to grow robustly well into the future. We will announce many changes to upgrades and how the bank is set up on Empire Avenue, and while there will be some pain of adjustment, we do believe that all the changes will make Empire Avenue closer to our target of creating an economy around your social media. We hope to make these announcements this week so you know what’s coming and when!
Communities. We love community, and we love the social nature of community. We will continue to expand upon the Community features on Empire Avenue so you can be social, share more, communicate and be rewarded for being members of active Communities.
The Platform. We will be releasing a second version of our API, which will give developers some neat tools. I know we’ve told you several times that the new API would be coming, but now that we’ve started to solidify the site and the experience, we think a new set of tools will send Empire Avenue happily and merrily on its way.
Finally, regarding the State of Empire Avenue Inc. Our company has expanded over the past few months to meet the growing demands of the service. We’ve hired three new excellent people in Michael Grills (e)MGRILLS, Narsimham Chelluri (e)NARSA and Dimitri Didorenko (e)DIMIDID777. We expect some growing pains in the early part of this year, but isn’t that half the fun of creating a cool start up?
So here’s to 2012! The Avenue continues to grow strong.
Access to social networks is prohibited in 53% of corporations
:: From the Newsroom :: Digital Convergence: 07/12/2011
Search 'Global Security Risk in IT', conducted by Kaspersky Lab, in partnership with B2B International, found the activities that are often restrictive in business.
Social networks are seen as a major security threats, along with various forms of file sharing.
Access to social networks is completely blocked in 53% of companies surveyed,
19% while others restrict this activity to some extent.
Overall, the data placed the two networks as the most forbidden of activity,
second only to the programs file sharing (P2P).
The other activities that appear on the list include online games, access to certain sites, streaming video and instant messaging services.
When asked about the most dangerous activities performed by employees, social networks were cited by 35% of companies.
"Companies are concerned about not just productivity, but with the security, and it defines the scope of restricted activities of employees," said Costin Raiu, director of global research at Kaspersky Lab
"Social networks are seen as a time-consuming activity but also as a potential source of malware attacks and a threat to sensitive data, "adds the executive.
On December 25, Christmas will be celebrated around the world.
Although nominally a Christian holiday, Christmas is also widely celebrated by many non-Christians.
Christmas, also referred to as Christmas Day or Christmastide, is an annual holiday that marks and honors the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure of Christianity, which is the basis for the anno Domini system of dating, thought to have occurred between 7 and 2 BC (before Christ).
Eastern Orthodox national churches, including those of Russia, Georgia, Egypt, Ukraine, the Macedonia, Serbia and the Greek Patriarchate of Jerusalem mark feasts using the older Julian Calendar, and December 25 on that calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the more widely used Gregorian calendar.
Christians believe that on Christmas God did sent his son into the world who took all the sins of mankind on his shoulders.
In the early years of Christianity, Easter was the main holiday; the birth of Jesus was not celebrated.
In the fourth century, church officials decided to institute the birth of Jesus as a holiday.
First called the Feast of the Nativity, the custom spread to Egypt by 432 and to England by the end of the sixth century. By the end of the eighth century, the celebration of Christmas had spread all the way to Scandinavia.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures.
For many Christians, participating in a religious service plays an important part in the recognition of the season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. Family reunions and the exchange of gifts are a widespread tradition of the holiday. Gift giving takes place on Christmas Day or – in many countries – on Christmas Eve, the day before Christmas Day, December 24, which is a culturally significant celebration for most of the Western world and is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas.
Others practice gift giving on December 6, Saint Nicholas Day, or January 6, Epiphany.
“Silent Night” -The choir of the Makumbi Children’s Home in Zimbabwe with the choristers of The London Oratory School Schola:
“Silent Night” (German: Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht) is one of the world’s most popular Christmas carols.
Every year it is sung in many different languages throughout the world.
Its popularity is owed to its peaceful melody and its simple narration of the Christmas tale.
The original lyrics of the song were written in Austria by the priest Father Joseph Mohr and the melody was composed by the Austrian headmaster Franz Xaver Gruber.
In 1859, John Freeman Young(second Bishop, Episcopal Diocese of Florida) published the English translation that is most frequently sung today.
Christmas as we know it today is a Victorian invention of the 1860s.
Probably the most celebrated holiday in the world, modern Christmas is a product of hundreds of years of both secular and religious traditions from around the globe.
Several similar mythological figures, known as Saint Nicholas, Father Christmas and Santa Claus among many other names, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season. The economic impact of Christmas is a factor that has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world.
Christmas-related controversy is mainly restricted to concerns of a public focus on secular Christmas themes such as Santa Claus and gift giving rather than what is sometimes expressed by Christians as the “reason for the season”—the birth of Jesus. ______________________________________________________________
Nativity - by Lorenzo Lotto, 1523
The Story of Christmas
The Christmas story is found in the Bible in the Gospel according to Matthew (1:18-2:18) and in the Gospel according to Luke (1:26-56, 2:1-40). It is also mentioned in Isaiah.
Matthew tells the story largely from the perspective of Joseph, including the dreams that he had and his family genealogy. In this gospel the ‘Kingship’ of Jesus is the major topic.
Starting with the Davidic Kingly genealogy through Joseph and the coming of the Magi (Wisemen) who are looking for the new king. Also King Herod’s reaction is in Matthew.
The events in Luke are given from Mary’s view.
The angel Gabriel appears to Mary and announces the coming of the child.
Mary’s genealogy is also given in Luke (3:23-38), she was also a descendent of David, but not in the ‘Kingly’ line.
Chapter 2 begins with the Christmas story that everyone is familiar with:
In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered.
2 This was the first registration when Quirinius was governor of Syria.
3 And all went to be registered, each to his own town. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the town of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David,
5 to be registered with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child.
6 And while they were there, the time came for her to give birth.
7 And she gave birth to her firstborn son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn.
And in the same region there were shepherds out in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night.
And an angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were filled with fear.
10 And the angel said to them, “Fear not, for behold, I bring you good news of a great joy that will be for all the people.
For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is Christ the Lord.
And this will be a sign for you: you will find a baby wrapped in swaddling cloths and lying in a manger.”
And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying, “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace among those with whom he is pleased!”
The Christmas Story
A long artistic tradition has grown of producing painted depictions of the nativity in art.
Nativity scenes are traditionally set in a barn or stable and include Mary, Joseph, the child Jesus, angels, shepherds and the Three Wise Men: Balthazar, Melchior, and Caspar, who are said to have followed the star, known as the Star of Bethlehem, which led them to the stable where the long awaited Messiah was born into this world and who presented gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to the child in the manger.
The virgin birth of Jesus is a tenet of Christianity and Islam which holds that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while remaining a virgin.
While the term “virgin birth” is common, “virgin conception” would be more accurate.
This doctrine was a universally held belief in the Christian church by the second century, and is upheld by Anglicanism, the Church of the East, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Protestantism and Roman Catholicism.
It is included in the two most widely used Christian creeds, which state that Jesus “was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary” and was “born of the Virgin Mary”. ______________________________________________________________
Christmas and Xmas
The term “Xmas”, a popular shortened form of the word Christmas that originates from the use of the Greek letter chi to represent “Christ” (Χριστός), has been a particular topic of controversy. The word Christmas originated as a compound meaning “Christ’s mass”.
It is derived from the Middle English “Christemasse” and Old English “Cristes mæsse”, a phrase first recorded in 1038.
“Cristes” is from Greek “christos” and “mæsse” is from Latin “missa”.
In early Greek versions of the New Testament, the letter Χ (chi), is the first letter of Christ. Since the mid-16th century Χ, or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ. Hence, Xmas is often used as an abbreviation for Christmas.
The early church used the first two letters of Christos in the Greek alphabet ‘chi’ and ‘rho’ to create a monogram (symbol) to represent the name of Jesus.
This looks like an X with a small p on the top.
The symbol of a fish is sometimes used by Christians.
This comes from the time when the first Christians had to meet in secret, as the Romans wanted to kill them (before Emperor Constantine became a Christian).
Jesus had said that he wanted to make his followers ‘Fishers of Men’, so people started to use that symbol.
When two Christians met, one person drew half a basic fish shape (often using their foot in the dust on the ground) and the other person drew the other half of the fish.
The Greek word for fish is ‘Ikthus’ or ‘Ichthys’.
There are five Greek letters in the word. It can also make up a sentence of Christian beliefs ‘Ie-sous Christos Theou Huios So-te-r’ which in English means “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour”.
The second letter of these five letter is X or Christos!
So Xmas can also mean Christmas; but it should also be pronouced ‘Christmas’ rather than ‘exmas’!(www.whychristmas.com).
There are many different theories as to why Christmas is celebrated on December 25th.
The middle of winter has long been a time of celebration around the world. Centuries before the arrival of the man called Jesus, early Europeans celebrated light and birth in the darkest days of winter.
The Winter Solstice is the day where there is the shortest time between the sun rising and the sun setting.
It happens on December 21st or 22nd.
Many peoples rejoiced during the winter solstice, when the worst of the winter was behind them and they could look forward to longer days and extended hours of sunlight.
Early Christians might have given this festival a new meaning – to celebrate the birth of the Son of God ‘the unconquered Son’ (In the Bible a prophecy about the Jewish savior, who Christians believe is Jesus, is called ‘Sun of Righteousness’.)
The Winter Solstice and the ancient pagan Roman midwinter festivals called ‘Saturnalia’ (a holiday in honor of Saturn, the god of agriculture) and ‘Dies Natalis Solis Invicti’ took place in December.
Also around the time of the winter solstice, Romans observed Juvenalia, a feast honoring the children of Rome.
In addition, members of the upper classes often celebrated the birthday of Mithra, the god of the unconquerable sun, on December 25.
It was believed that Mithra, an infant god, was born of a rock.
For some Romans, Mithra’s birthday was the most sacred day of the year.
Odin the Wanderer, by Georg von Rosen, 1886
In Old Germanic, people honored the pagan god Odin during the mid-winter holiday.
They were terrified of Odin, as they believed he made nocturnal flights through the sky to observe his people, and then decide who would prosper or perish.
Because of his presence, many people chose to stay inside.
In Scandinavia, the Norse celebrated Yule from December 21, the winter solstice, through January.
In recognition of the return of the sun, fathers and sons would bring home large logs (Yule logs), which they would set on fire.
The people would feast until the log burned out, which could take as many as 12 days.
The Norse believed that each spark from the fire represented a new pig or calf that would be born during the coming year. ______________________________________________________________
Pope Gregory XIII (1502-1585)
Different Calendars
The Gregorian calendar, also known as the Western calendar or the Christian calendar, is the internationally accepted civil calendar.
It was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582, Before this time the ‘Roman’ or Julian Calendar was used (named after Julius Caesar).
The motivation for the Gregorian reform was that the Julian calendar assumes that the time between vernal equinoxes is 365.25 days, when in fact it is about 11 minutes less.
Because of the Protestant Reformation, however, many Western European countries did not initially follow the Gregorian reform, and maintained their old-style systems. Eventually other countries followed the reform for the sake of consistency, or partially adopted the Gregorian calender.
Julius Caesar (100-44 BC)
Eastern Orthodox an Coptic Churches, including those ofRussia, Georgia, Egypt, Ukraine, the Macedonia, Serbiaand the Greek Patriarchate of Jerusalem mark feasts using the older Julian Calendar.
December 25 on that calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the more widely used Gregorian calendar.
Oriental Orthodox churches also use their own calendars, which are generally similar to the Julian calendar.
The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the nativity in combination with the Feast of the Epiphany on January 6.
Armenian churches customarily use the Gregorian calendar, but some use the Julian calendar and thus celebrate Christmas Day on January 19, and Christmas Eve on January 18 (according to the Gregorian calendar).
In some part of the UK, January 6th is still called ‘Old Christmas’ as this would have been the day that Christmas would have celebrated on, if the calendar hadn’t been changed.
Some people didn’t want to use the new calendar as they thought it ‘cheated’ them out of 10 days. ______________________________________________________________
Mary and Jesus in a manger, early 1900s Bible illustration by O.A. Stemler
Date of Jesus’ Birth
The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus.
In Western Christianity, it has been traditionally celebrated on December 25 as Christmas (in the liturgical season of Christmastide), a date that can be traced as early as the year 330 among Roman Christians.
Before then in Eastern Christianity, Jesus’ birth was generally celebrated on January 6/7 (late at night on January 6) as part of the feast of Theophany, also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus’ birth but also his baptism by John in the Jordan River and possibly additional events in his life.
Jesus’s Baptism was originally seen as more important than his birth, as this was when he started his ministry.
But soon people wanted a separate day to celebrate his birth.
The church in general adopted Christmas much later than Epiphany, and before the 5th century there was no consensus as to when it should come in the calendar, whether on January 6 or December 25.
The first recorded date of Christmas being celebrated on December 25th was in 336AD in the time of theRoman Emperor Constantine (he was the first Christian Roman Emperor).
A few years later Pope Julius I officially declared that the birth of Jesus would be celebrated on the 25th December.
Some consider this as an attempt to Christianise the Pagan celebrations that already took place at this time of year.
By 529, 25th December had become a civil holiday and by 567 the twelve days from 25th December to the Epiphany were public holidays.
Annunciation - by Fabrizio Boschi, 17th century
A very early Christian tradition said that the day when Mary was told that she would have a very special baby, Jesus (this is called the Annunciation) was on March 25th – and it’s still celebrated today on the 25th March.
Nine months after the 25th March is the 25th December.
March 25th was also the day some some early Christians thought the world had been made and also the day that Jesus died on when he was an adult.
The Chronology of Jesus depicts the attempt to establish a historical chronology for the events of the life of Jesus depicted in the four canonical gospels (which allude to various dates for several events).
Certain events in the chronology of Jesus as described in the Gospels can be cross-referenced to Jewish festivals (Judaism was the main religion of Israel at the time of Jesus’ birth), and to the tenure of historical rulers and high priests.
However, other events such as the specific years of Jesus’s birth and death cannot be accurately determined.
Jesus was born either before 4 BC (when Herod the Great died) or in 6 AD (when the historical Census of Quirinius was undertaken).
The traditional date, 25 December 1 BC, is a combination between a symbolic choice (for the day of the year) and a calculation of Dionysius Exiguus (for the year itself).
The New Testament provides no information regarding the date of the birth of Jesus.
The traditional date is 25 December, which is mid-winter in Judea.
Because the Luke account says that shepherds were outdoors with their flocks it has sometimes been suggested that this implies a spring, summer or autumn date.
However, the climate of Palestine is quite mild and in fact sheep are allowed to forage even in December.
However, today, whether or not the birth date of Jesus is on December 25 is not considered to be an important issue in mainstream Christian denominations, rather the believe that God did sent his son into the world who took all the sins of mankind on his shoulders, is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.
It was around 350 AD, Bishop of Rome, Pope Julius I, declared that Christmas be celebrated on December 25 every year.
Early Romans, however, could not profess their religion openly as Christianity had grown up in blood and tears in Rome.
The end of late 300s saw the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity and the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.
By 4th century A.D the religion came to be followed by vast masses of humanity.
This community felt the need to celebrate the birth of Christ as a festival in a combination of Christian, Pagan and folk traditions.
During the medieval period (c.400AD – c.1400AD) Christmas was a time for feasting and merrymaking.
It was a predominantly secular festival but contained some religious elements.
Medieval Christmas lasted 12 days from Christmas Eve on 24th December, until the Epiphany (Twelfth Night) on 6th January.
The Church attempted to curb Pagan practices and popular customs were given Christian meaning.
Carols that had started as Pagan songs for celebrations such as midsummer and harvest were taken up by the Church.
By the late medieval period the singing of Christmas carols had become a tradition.
From the middle of the 17th century until the early 18th century the Christian Puritans suppressed Christmas celebrations in Europe and America.
The Puritan movement began during the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England (1558-1603).
They believed in strict moral codes, plenty of prayer and close following of New Testament scripture.
The pilgrims, English separatists that came to America in 1620, were even more orthodox in their Puritan beliefs and as a result, Christmas was not a holiday in early America.
From 1659 to 1681, the celebration of Christmas was actually outlawed in Boston.
By contrast, in the Jamestown settlement, Captain John Smith reported that Christmas was enjoyed by all and passed without incident.
After the American Revolution, English customs fell out of favor, including Christmas.
In fact, Congress was in session on December 25, 1789, the first Christmas under America’s new constitution.
Christmas wasn’t declared a federal holiday until June 26, 1870.
In the Victorian Era (1837-1901) Christmas celebrations became highly popular.
The Victorian Christmas was based on nostalgia for Christmases past. Dickens’ A Christmas Carol (1843) inspired ideals of what Christmas should be, capturing the imagination of the British and American middle classes.
A brief except from the 1951 film “A Christmas Carol” starring Alastair Sim:
A Christmas Carol is a novella by English author Charles Dickens first published by Chapman & Hall on 19 December 1843.
The story tells of sour and stingy Ebenezer Scrooge’s ideological, ethical, and emotional transformation after the supernatural visitations of Jacob Marley and the Ghosts of Christmases Past, Present, and Yet to Come.
The Christmas tree is a decorated evergreen coniferous tree, real or artificial, and a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas.
The tradition of decorating an evergreen tree at Christmas started in Livonia and Germany in the 16th century.
The Christmas tree is traditionally brought into the home and decorated with Christmas lights (originally candles), ornaments, garlands, tinsel, and candy canes during the days around Christmas.
An angel or star is placed at the top of the tree, representing the host of angels or the Star of Bethlehem from the Nativity.
The tradition of the Christmas tree has been around for over a thousand years.
While a Christmas tree is a popular sight in today’s Christian homes, the Church widely opposed it well into the Middle Ages.
In fact, Christmas trees did not become popular until the mid-19th century. Ancient Germanic tribes were the first to use trees and other evergreens to celebrate the winter solstice or Yule, which occurs every year between December 20 and 23.
Other Pagan cultures, such as the Druids and the Celts, also used trees and mistletoe as symbols of eternal life and to honor the coming spring.
The earliest record of an evergreen tree being used and decorated (but without lights) for Christmas is 1521 in the German region of Alsace.
The first hint of the modern use of the Christmas tree happened in the 8th century.
St. Boniface, commissioned by Pope Gregory II, was trying to convert Germanic tribes to Christianity and faced several difficulties, including the widespread use of pagan symbols.
One of these symbols was the fir tree.
Because it looks like a triangle, St. Boniface came up with the idea of using it as a symbol of the Trinity.
In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg introduced the Christmas tree to Vienna in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d’Orléans.
“O Christmas Tree” is a Christmas carol of German origin (“Oh Tannenbaum”). The best known version was written in 1824 by the Leipzig organist, teacher and composer Ernst Anschütz. The melody is an old folk tune:
In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced by Prince Albert, the German born husband of Queen Victoria, who introduced the tradition to Windsor Castle in 1834.
The Christmas tree didn’t make its way to America until the late 1800s, partly due to the Church’s penalization of the practice.
With the advent of electricity, Christmas trees started showing up in public squares, parks, and townships. ______________________________________________________________
Father Christmas and other legendary gift-bringing Figures
A number of figures of both Christian and mythical origin have been associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts.
Father Christmas is the name used in many English-speaking countries for a symbolic figure associated with Christmas.
A similar figure with the same name (in other languages) exists in several other countries. Father Christmas is said to wear (these days) a bright red suit but in Victorian and Tudor times he wore a bright green suit.
Father Christmas typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, but was neither a gift bringer nor particularly associated with children.
The pre-modern representations of the gift-giver from church history, was Saint Nicholas.
Nicholas lived in the fourth century and was Bishop of Myra in Lycia, which is now a part of Turkey.
Following the death of hiswealthy parent’s it is said that Nicholas used his inheritance to help those in need. His acts of kindness and mercy were legendary and he became known throughout Christendom as a saintly man. The Feast Day of Saint Nicholas on December 6th is a church holiday and a festival for children in many countries in Europe,related to surviving legends of the saint, and particularly his reputation as a bringer of gifts. In many countries , the figure of Saint Nicholas was also blended with local folklore.
Due to the modern association with Christmas, Saint Nicholas is also a patron saint of Christmas. (Please find more about Saint Nicholas here ).
Father Christmas dates back at least as far as the 17th century in Britain, and pictures of him survive from that era, portraying him as a jolly well-nourished bearded man dressed in a long, green, fur-lined robe.
He typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, and was reflected as the “Ghost of Christmas Present”, in Charles Dickens’s festive classic A Christmas Carol.
Pre-modern representations of the gift-giver from church history and folklore, notably St. Nicholas and Sinterklaas, merged with the British character Father Christmas to create the character known to Britons and Americans as Santa Claus. ______________________________________________________________ Christmas Gift-Bringers around the World
Europe and North America
Throughout Europe and North America, Santa Claus is generally known as such, but in some countries the gift-giver’s name, attributes, date of arrival, and even identity varies.
Austria: Christkind (“Christ child”, often falsly translated into English as “Kris Kringle”) Belgium: “Santa Claus”, called Père Noël by French speakers and Kerstman (“Father Christmas”) by Dutch speakers. Bulgaria: Дядо Коледа (Dyado Koleda, “Grandfather Christmas”), with the Russian-borrowed version of Дед Мороз (Djed Moroz, “Grandfather Frost”) being somewhat more widespread in Socialist times from the end of World War II until 1989 and still in favour nowadays. Canada: Santa Claus (among English speakers); Le Père Noël (“Father Christmas”), among French speakers. Croatia: Djed Božićnjak (“Grandfather Christmas”), or Djed Mraz (Grandfather Frost), Mali Isus (“Baby Jesus”) for religious Christians. Czech Republic: Ježíšek (diminutive form of Ježíš (“Jesus”) Denmark: Julemanden, (“The Christmas Man”). Julemanden lives in Greenland. Estonia: Jõuluvana (“Old man of Christmas”) Finland: Joulupukki (“Yule Goat”) France: Le Père Noël (“Father Christmas”) Germany: Weihnachtsmann (“Christmas Man”) or Christkind (“Christ Child”) (in southern Germany) Greece: Άγιος Βασίλης (“Saint Basil”) Hungary: In Hungary the Angels are bringing the Christmas gifts, or the child Jesus (“Jézuska or Kis Jézus “); Iceland: Jólasveinar. In Icelandic folktales, there are 13 Santa Clauses. Ireland: Daidí na Nollag (“Father Christmas”) among Irish speakers Italy: Babbo Natale (“Father Christmas”), sometimes substituted by Gesù bambino (“Baby Jesus”), in order to give to this gift-bringing character a more catholic connotation. Latvia: Ziemassvētku vecītis
Liechtenstein: Christkind Lithuania: Kalėdų Senelis Luxembourg: Klaussenhofer Macedonia: Dedo Mraz Netherlands: “Santa Claus”, called Kerstman (“Christmas Man”), is recently celebrated by some people on Christmas Day.
Norway: Julenissen, a small, elderly man. a Christmas dwarf Poland: Święty Mikołaj / Mikołaj (“Saint Nicholas”) Portugal: Pai Natal (“Father Christmas”) Romania: Moş Crăciun (“Old Man Christmas”) Russia: Дед Мороз (Ded Moroz, “Grandfather Frost”). Gifts are giving to children at the New Year celebration. Scotland: Bodach na Nollaig (Scots Gaelic: Old Man of Christmas) Serbia: Deda Mraz (Деда Мраз – Grandfather Frost) – renamed from Božić Bata (Божић Бата – Christmas Brother) during the communist times after the World War II and moved from Christmas to New Year to prevent any religious connections. Slovakia: Ježiško (Refers to newborn(baby) Jesus); Slovenia: Bozicek Spain: Papá Noel (Father Noel); the Tió de Nadal in Catalonia; Olentzero in the Basque Country. A more common and traditional Christmas present-giving figure in Spain are “Los Reyes Magos” (“The Three Kings”; “Magi”). Sweden: Jultomten (“The Yule/Christmas Gnome”) Switzerland: Christkind Turkey: Noel Baba (“Father Noel”) Also, Noel Baba is widely thought to bring new year presents in Turkey due to the country’s predominant Muslim population. Christmas is celebrated among the Christian communities. Turkmenistan: Aýaz baba United Kingdom: Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas though they were originally two quite different people, and Father Christmas did not originally bring gifts. United States: Santa Claus Wales: Siôn Corn
Latin America
Argentina: Papá Noel, El Niño Dios (“God child”) Brazil: Papai Noel Chile: Santa Claus is called “Viejito Pascuero” (Old man Christmas) Colombia: El Niño Dios (“God child”), Papa Noel Costa Rica: San Nicolás or Santa Claus (pronounced “Santa Clos”) Dominican Republic: Santa Clos/Papá Noe. However, traditionally, Christmas gifts are given by The Three Kings (Los Tres Reyes Magos) on January 6th and not on Christmas. Ecuador: El Niño Dios (“God child”), Papá Noel Mexico: Santa Claus (pronounced “Santa Clos”); El Niño Dios (“God child,”)and also Los Tres Reyes Magos. Peru: Papá Noel Puerto Rico: Jesús (Christmas, Los Tres Reyes Magos (The Three Kings Day), Santa Clos. Venezuela: Niño Jesús (“child jesus”); San Nicolás (“Santa”).
Depends on the region.
People in East and Central Asia, particularly countries that have adopted Western cultures, also celebrate Christmas and the gift-giver traditions passed down to them from the West.
The American version of the Santa Claus figure received its inspiration and its name from the Dutch legend of Sinter Klaas (a short form of Sint Nikolaas, Dutch for Saint Nicholas), brought by settlers to New Amsterdam (historical name for New York) in the 17th century. As early as 1773 the name appeared in the American press as “St. A Claus,” but it was the popular author Washington Irving who gave Americans their first detailed information about the Dutch version of Saint Nicholas. In his History of New York, published in 1809 under the pseudonym Diedrich Knickerbocker, Irving described the arrival of the saint on horseback (unaccompanied by Black Peter) each Eve of Saint Nicholas.
This Dutch-American Saint Nick achieved his fully Americanized form in 1823 in the poem“A Visit From Saint Nicholas” more commonly known as “The Night Before Christmas” by writer Clement Clarke Moore.
Moore included such details as the names of the reindeer; Santa Claus’s laughs, winks, and nods; and the method by which Saint Nicholas, referred to as an elf, returns up the chimney. (Moore’s phrase “lays his finger aside of his nose” was drawn directly from Irving’s 1809 description.)
“It was The Night Before Christmas” also called “A Visit from St. Nicholas” (1822) It is tradition in many American families to read the poem every Christmas Eve.
The first publication date was the 23rd of December 1823 and it was an immediate success.
The following version is read by Harry E. Humphrey and is taken from a 1915 Edison Blue Amberol Cylinder:
The American image of Santa Claus was further elaborated by illustrator Thomas Nast, who depicted a rotund Santa for Christmas issues of Harper’s magazine from the 1860s to the 1880s.
Nast added such details as Santa’s workshop at the North Pole (in Europe, Father Christmas/Santa Claus is often said to reside in the mountains of Korvatunturi in Lapland, Finland) and Santa’s list of the good and bad children of the world.
A human-sized version of Santa Claus, rather than the elf of Moore’s poem, was depicted in a series of illustrations for Coca Cola advertisements introduced in 1931 that introduced and made the red Santa Suits an icon.
Santa Claus’s reindeer are a team of flying reindeer traditionally held to pull the sleigh of Santa Claus and help him deliver Christmas gifts.
The commonly cited names of the reindeer are Dasher and Dancer, Prancer and Vixen, Comet and Cupid, and Donder andBlitzen.
They are based on those used in the 1823 poem A Visit from St. Nicholas. Rudolph, the ninth reindeer, with a red and shiny nose, was invented in 1939 by an advertising writer for the Montgomery Ward Company.
According to this story, Rudolph’s glowing red nose made him a social outcast among the other reindeer. However, one Christmas Eve Santa Claus was having a lot of difficulty making his flight around the world because it was too foggy.
When Santa went to Rudolph’s house to deliver his presents he noticed the glowing red nose in the darkened bedroom and decided it could be a makeshift lamp to guide his sleigh.
He asked Rudolph to lead the sleigh for the rest of the night, Rudolph accepted and returned home a hero for having helped Santa Claus. Rudolph’s story is a popular Christmas story.
Rudolf the red nosed reindeer” – sung by Dean Martin
Santa Claus climbs down chimneys on the night before Christmas to leave his gifts in stockings children set out on the fireplace’s mantelpiece. ______________________________________________________________
Some Christmas Carols & Traditions in different Countries
CENTRAL and SOUTH AMERICA
In Central and South American nations, which have a fairly large Christian population, the Nativity or Manger Scene is the main decoration in homes at Christmas time.
Traditional Spanish carols (or Villancicos) are a must for most Spanish-speaking families when it comes to celebrating holidays, and especially Christmas.
Villancicos originated around the 15th or 15th century and were a common lyric-form during the Renaissance period on the Iberian Peninsula.
This lyric poem wasn’t originally set to music, but overtime came to be sung in different settings and came to be associated with accompanying music.
Los Peces En El Rio – Villancicos – traditional Spanish Carol
The interesting thing about Spanish carols sung during Christmas time is that these particular Villancicos were often comical in nature and were designed to make people laugh, especially as they gathered together during the Christmas feasts. ______________________________________________________________
In Argentina, red and white garlands are used to decorate houses.
After attending Midnight Mass, Argentinians have a meal, toast each other, dance and go out to see fireworks.
The meal may be roasted pork or turkey, stuffed tomatoes, mince pies, Christmas bread and puddings.
Drinks such as cider and juice made from different fruits are used for the toast.
Christmas gifts are opened on Christmas Eve just before the family retires to bed. ______________________________________________________________
Christmas customs in Brazil originate from the many different ethnic groups who make up the country.
The national language of Brazil is Portuguese.
The Nativity scene is called the Presepio and can commonly be found displayed in homes, churches and stores.
Papai Noel, or Father Noel, resides in Greenland and brings gifts at Christmas.
He is said to wear silk clothing because Christmas occurs during summer when it is very hot in Brazil. ______________________________________________________________
In Chile, Santa Claus is Father Christmas and is known as ‘Viejito Pascuero.’
He arrives in a similar but slightly different manner than Santa Claus because his reindeer is pulled by a taxicab.
Chileans use small figures made from clay to place near the Christmas tree in a display called pesebre to show the Nativity story.
The traditional Christmas dinner includes chicken soup with stuffed potatoes, onions and corn on the cob.
Another favorite item is a Christmas bread that is called pan de pasqua and which is made with candies and fruits. ______________________________________________________________
Christmas in Colombia is primarily a religious celebration.
Presents are brought by El Niño Jesus / Niño Dios (Baby Jesus) instead of Papá Noél (Father Christmas), whose gift giving role has been downplayed some by the Church. However, Santa Claus is still an important Christmas figure, as Santa decorations are common, and Santa can be seen posing for pictures at shopping malls.
While Christmas decorations may be put up as early as the beginning of November, the unofficial start of Colombian Christmas festivities takes place on December 7, Día de las Velitas, or “Day of the Candles.”
At night, the streets, sidewalks, balconies, porches, and driveways are decorated with candles and paper lanterns, which illuminate cities and towns in a yellow glow to honor the Immaculate Conception on the following day, December 8.
Activities such as musical events and firework displays are planned by cities and held during this time.
“Campana Sobre Campana”- A Traditional Spanish Carol:
______________________________________________________________ In Mexico, a Christmas tree may also be set up in some homes along with the Nativity scene or Nacimiento.
The Christmas tree is usually a small artificial tree, called arbolito.
It can also be as simple as a branch cut from a special type of tree or a type of shrub that is then minimally decorated.
The primary Christmas celebration in Mexico is called La Posada.
It is a religious procession that dramatizes how Joseph and Mary tried to find a place where Jesus could be born.
During the procession, the participants carry images of Mary and Joseph and go from house to house seeking a place to stay.
Feliz Navidad and Las Posadas
During Midnight Mass, which is called la misa del gallo or ‘rooster’s mass,’ those in attendance sing lullabies to Jesus.
On Christmas Day children receive gifts as well as candies that are stuffed into a piñata. ______________________________________________________________
Christmas celebrations in Peru are a combination of traditions brought over from Spain and the traditions of the native American experience.
December 25 is the big day for gift giving and receiving. In Peru, the big day is Noche Buena or “Good Night”, on December 24.
On this night, after mass (for practicing Catholics) everybody goes home to open gifts and feast on an elaborately prepared Christmas meal of traditional roasted turkey.
At midnight, the adults toast with champagne and children raise their glasses of hot chocolate as fireworks shine in the night sky.
Alla Baja Jesucristo – Villancico Navidad Peru
Most Christmas meals served in Peru include the traditional turkey as well as tamales, salads, applesauce and a sweet bread called Panettone.
The hot chocolate is usually made from scratch from melted rich dark chocolate, cinnamon and cloves. ______________________________________________________________
In Venezuela, Christmas is celebrated with a number of religious and traditional customs.
As a predominantly Catholic country, Christmas festivities celebrate the birth of the child Jesus.
The religious celebrations begin on the 16th of December with masses said every morning until December 24th, when the religious service is held at midnight (Misa de Gallo).
The main celebration takes place on Christmas Eve, “Noche Buena” as it is called in Spanish.
Families get together to enjoy the traditional holiday meal: “hallacas,” “pan de jamón,” “dulce de lechoza.”
The pan de “jamón” is a long bread filled with cooked ham and raisins.
The “dulce de lechoza” is a dessert made of green papaya and brown sugar, slowly cooked for hours and served cold.
Many homes put up a Christmas tree but the most authentic Venezuelan custom is to display a nacimiento (Nativity scene).
A more sophisticated nacimiento is the pesebre.
This represents an entire region with mountains, hills, plains and valleys.
The central point is a replica of the manger at Bethlehem.
The structure is a framework covered with canvas and painted accordingly.
Often, the pesebre becomes a real work of art. ______________________________________________________________
AUSTRALIA
In Australia, as with all of the Southern Hemisphere, 25 December occurs during the height of the summer season.
According to tradition, children are told Santa Claus visits houses on Christmas Eve placing presents for children under the Christmas tree or in stockings or sacks which are usually hung by a fireplace. Gifts are opened the next morning, 25 December.
In recent decades many new apartments and homes have been built without traditional combustion fireplaces, however with some innovation the tradition persists.
Snacks and beverages (including liquor) may be left out for Santa to consume during his visit.
Traditionally, extended families gather on 25 December for a Christmas lunch similar to a traditional United Kingdom Christmas meal (also with North American influences) that includes decorated hams, roast turkey, roast chicken, salads and roast vegetables, accompanied by Champagne, and followed by fruit mince pies, pavlova, trifle, and plum pudding with brandy butter.
Christmas crackers are a feature of the meal.
Candy canes are a popular confectionery in Australia in the Christmas period.
More recently, as appropriate to the sometimes hot weather on the day, lighter meals featuring fish and seafood may be served, along with barbecue lunches.
However, the typical roast remains popular.
Carols by Candlelight is a tradition that started in Melbourne in 1938 and has since spread around Australia and the world.
At the event people gather on Christmas Eve, usually outdoors, to sing carols by candlelight in a large-scale concert style event.
The Vision Australia’s Carols by Candlelight which takes place at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl in Melbourne on Christmas Eve, is televised nationwide and it has become a tradition for many Australians to watch the performance.
Carols in the Domain takes place in Sydney the Saturday before Christmas.
Ave Maria – Anthony Callea at Carols By Candlelight
Anthony Callea (who was then playing Boq in Wicked, Melbourne) and The National Boys’ Choir of Australia sing Ave Maria at Vision Australia’s Carols By Candlelight, Melbourne, Christmas Eve 2008.
The evening is an established Australian Christmas tradition organised by Vision Australia, which raises funds for and supports people with low vision.
Entertainers work for nothing, it’s always televised live and is one of the biggest broadcasts of its kind in the world. ______________________________________________________________
FRANCE
The celebration of Christmas in France varies by region.
Most provinces celebrate Christmas on the 25th of December, which is a bank holiday.
However, in eastern and northern France, the Christmas season begins on 6 December, la fête de Saint Nicolas, and in some provinces la fête des Rois* is one the most important holidays of the Christmas season.
In Lyon, 8 December is la Fête de lumières, when Lyonnais pay hommage to the virgin Mary by putting candles in their windows to light up the city.
Le Réveillon
Although fewer and fewer French attend la Messe de Minuit on Christmas Eve, it is still an important part of Christmas for many families.
It is followed by a huge feast, called le Réveillon (from the verb réveiller, to wake up or revive).
Le Réveillon is a symbolic awakening to the meaning of Christ’s birth and is the culinary high point of the season, which may be enjoyed at home or in a restaurant or café that is open all night.
Each region in France has its own traditional Christmas menu, with dishes like turkey, capon, goose, chicken, and boudin blanc (similar to white pudding).
After Réveillon, it’s customary to leave a candle burning in case the Virgin Mary passes by.
Throughout the French Christmas season, there are special traditional desserts: La bûche de Noël (Yule log) – A log-shaped cake made of chocolate and chestnuts. Representative of the special wood log burned from Christmas Eve to New Year’s Day in the Périgord, which is a holdover from a pagan Gaul celebration. Le pain calendeau (in southern France) – is a Christmas loaf, of which a part is given to a poor person.
Perhaps the best known traditional French carols, “Il est né, le divin Enfant!” that comes from the region of Provence.
and: “Petit Papa Noël”
Another important aspect of French Christmas celebrations is the crèche filled with santons, which is displayed in churches and many homes.
Living crèches in the form of plays and puppet shows based on the Nativity are commonly performed to teach the important ideas of Christianity and the Christmas celebration.
Mistletoe is hung above the door during the Christmas season to bring good fortune throughout the year. ______________________________________________________________
GERMANY
The actual Christmas gift-giving (German: “Bescherung”) usually takes place on Christmas Eve.
Gifts may be brought by the Weihnachtsmann (translation, “Christmas man”), who resembles either St. Nicholas or the American Santa Claus, or by the Christkind, a sprite-like child who may or may not represent the baby Jesus.
The Christmas Tree is first put up and decorated on the morning of the 24th.
The gifts are then placed under the tree.
Often after Christmas Vespers in the church and before or after an evening meal the father (or the mother) goes into the room where the tree is standing, lights the candles and rings a little bell.
Then the children are allowed to go into the candlelit room. In many families it is still a custom to sing Christmas songs around the tree before opening up the presents.
Some families, especially Catholic families, attend a midnight church service after the evening meal and gift-giving.
“Leise rieselt der Schnee” – Softly falls every Snow Flake A traditional German Christmas carol composed by Eduard Ebel about 1900 sung by “Total Vocal” at the Church Obervellmar
The culinary feast either takes place at supper on Christmas Eve or on the first day of Christmas, and usually involves poultry (typically roast goose).
Some families prefer a lighter and simpler meal on Christmas Eve.
They eat potato salad and sausages, carp or a hearty soup and eat goose, duck or pork roast on Christmas Day.
The most famous Christmas market in Germany is the “Nürnberger Christkindl Markt”, which is known for its gold foil angels and locally produced gingerbread cakes.
At least 375 years old, it is one of the oldest, and with over 200 vendors participating each year, it is also one of the largest Christmas markets (Weihnachtsmärkte) in Germany. ______________________________________________________________ ITALY
In Italy the Christmas season traditionally begins with the firing of the cannon from the Castle of Saint Angelo.
The Pifferari, which are shepherds that come from the mountains of Abruzzo and Latium, play their bagpipes.
Zampogna e Ciaramella di Montefalcone nel Sannio (Molise) L’Ancia Sannita Natale 2007
Presepi is an Italian nativity scene.
These are greatly embellished.
Cathedrals often compete to see who has the best presepi in town.
People go around town and view the presepi at the different churches.
The Vatican City in Rome and larger cities, like Naples, have exceptionally grand presepi.
The one in Naples is one of the most famous.
The day before Christmas Eve, no meat is eaten.
A lot of fish is served instead.
A traditional eel dish called “Capitone” is served as a traditional main course.
Sweet desserts such as panettone, torrone, and panforte make delicious accents to the Christmas celebration.
Pandoro is another amazing Italian traditional dessert served at Christmas.
In Italy, presents are also brought by La Befana, who arrives in the night to fill children’s stockings.
An Italian legend says that the Wise Men stopped by the home of an old woman asking for directions to help them find the baby Jesus.
They invited her to come with them as they searched, but she declined the offer because she was too busy.
She regretted the decision and began searching for the Wise Men and the baby Jesus.
Every home in which she stopped, she left a gift for the children in case the baby Jesus was there.
This legend led to the tradition of the Befana.
Children put their shoes by the fireplace, and the Befana is said to fill the shoes and stockings with gifts and treats for good children or coal for naughty children.
A Yule Log is burned as family and friends toast.
The Urn of Fate is a large decorative bowl with one gift for each person in it.
You take turns drawing from the bowl til you get the gift with your name on it.
“Tu scendi dalle stelle” – Canzoni di Natale
Although Babbo Natale (Father Christmas) and giving presents on Christmas are becoming more common, the main day for gift giving is Epiphany, the 12th day of Christmas when the three Wise Men gave Baby Jesus their gifts. ______________________________________________________________
RUSSIA
Christmas in Russia is most widely celebrated on January 7 (December 25 in the Julian Calendar used by the Russian Orthodox Church). It’s a day of both solemn ritual and joyous celebration. Orthodox Russians observe a vegetarian fast for six weeks until Christmas Eve, and for them most of the celebrating takes place on Christmas Eve, the 6th of January, which is mainly related to the Christmas Mass. In some cathedrals this ceremony can go long into the night.
For most people, however, the mass will end early, and people return home for the Christmas dinner with their families.
After dinner, children often go from house to house singing carols, and receiving sweets as gifts.
As a religious celebration, Christmas was banned during the Soviet aera.
However, many people still carried on their celebrations in secret though and Russian Christmas traditions were largely kept alive by shifting some of them to New Year’s Day.
Since 1992 Christmas became again a very popular celebration in Russian society, whereas Novi Gord(New Year) is of more importance and the most popular Russian holiday celebration.
However, some Russians observe two Christmases (according to both the Gregorian and the Julian Calendar).
A traditional Russian Christmas Song – (V lesu rodilas’ yolochka)
Many traditions associated with a western Christmas are attached to these New Year celebrations, like decorated Christmas Trees, or Yolka (New Year trees), which serve as a symbol of the New Year (The most famous public Yolka is the one at Moscow’s Red Square), and Father Frost (Ded Moroz; Russian: Дед Мороз). The name Father Frost also appears in the local language of other Slavic countries.
The literal translation of the name would be Grandpa Frost, although the name is often translated as Father Frost.
The traditional character Ded Moroz or a diminutive Dedushka Moroz plays a role similar to that of Santa Claus, bringing presents to children at New Year parties by the New Year Tree.
He carries a staff, wears Valenki (traditional style of Russian boot made of wool felt) and is carried across Russia in a Troika.
The Russian troika is a sledge drawn by three horses harnessed abreast.
The troika was a traditional style of cold weather transportation.
Passengers would bundle up in furs in the back of the sledge to ward off often dangerously low temperatures.
Ded Moroz is commonly accompanied bySnegurochka (Russian: Снегурочка), or ‘Snow Maiden, who is a unique attribute of the image of Father Frost – none of his foreign colleagues have a similar companion. Snegurochka is a character in Russian fairy tales.
According to one story, she is the daughter of Spring and Frost, who yearns for the companionship of mortal humans.
She grows to like a shepherd named Lel, but her heart is unable to know love.
Her mother takes pity and gives her this ability, but as soon as she falls in love, her heart warms up and she melts.
This version of the story was made into a play by Aleksandr Ostrovsky (which premiered in 1873), with incidental music byTchaikovsky. Modern Snegurochka is also depicted as the granddaughter and helper of Ded Moroz.
Typically, Ded Moroz and Snegurochka distribute presents to children, fighting off the evil witch, Baba Yaga, who tries to steal the gifts.
The period after Christmas Day until the 18th of January is known as Svyatki (Christmastide) which is a very joyful part of Russian Christmas celebrations.
Like other traditional celebrations, Russian Christmastide fell out of favor with authorities during the 20th century, but Svyatki has returned, along with other notable ancient festivals that are a part of Russian culture.
The period of Svyatki is associated with the pagan custom of Kolyada and is traditionally a time for masquerades, carnivals, carol singing and fortune telling. Many fortune-telling customs revolved around unmarried womens’ search for signs about their future husbands in wax, in mirrors, or in shadows.
Russia Today: Russian Christmastide Svyatki
Old Svyatki customs are referenced in some of the best-known Russian literature.
Fortune-telling practices are described in Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin, and costumed mummers are described in a Christmas scene from Tolstoy’s War and Peace. ______________________________________________________________ SWEDEN
Swedish Christmas celebrations begin with the first of Advent.
Saint Lucy’s Day (locally known as Luciadagen) which is the first major Christmas celebration before Christmas itself.
Electric candles and glowing stars are placed in almost every window in December month in Sweden.
As in many other countries in Northern Europe, theJultomte – Santa Claus (or simply Tomte) brings the presents on December 24, Christmas Eve, the day generally thought of as Christmas. The Jultomte was originally a small invisible Christmas house gnome or dwarf from the Nordic mythology, who watched over the house and its inhabitants.
An old superstition still calls for feeding the Tomte on Christmas Eve with a small bowl of porridge.
If a bowl of porridge is not laid out for him somewhere in or outside the house, he will bring bad luck to everyone in the house the next year.
The modern “Tomten”, nowadays is a version of Santa Claus in red cloth and white beard, except that he doesn’t enter the house through the chimney, but knocks on the door and asks “finns det några snälla barn här?” (are there any good children here?)
“När det lider mot jul” – Traditional Swedish Christmas Carol Recorded live in Botkyrka Church December 21th 2008. Voice Ann-Katrin Hegvold, organ Rune Karlsson.
Christmas in Sweden is, as everywhere else, an occasion celebrated with food.
Almost all Swedish families celebrate on 24 December with a Christmas table, called Christmas smörgåsbord (julbord), a display of several Christmas food items.
Almost all julbord has Christmas ham, (julskinka) accompanied by other Christmas dishes, such as small meatballs, pickled herring, spareribs, small hot dogs, lutfisk, pork sausage, salmon, Janssons frestelse (potato casserole with anchovy), and rice pudding.
The Christmas julbord is served with julmust and beverage like mulled wine, Christmas beer or snaps.
A Scandinavian speciality is the glögg (mulled and spiced wine with almonds and raisins), which is served hot in small cups.
The different dishes of the julbord may vary throughout Sweden, from South to North.
Businesses traditionally invite their employees to a julbord dinner or lunch the weeks before Christmas, and people go out privately to restaurants which also customarily offer julbord during December. ______________________________________________________________
UKRAINE & “Carol of the Bells”
“Carol of the Bells” is a Christmas carol performed and sung worldwide during the Christmas season. The choral miniature work is originally composed by theUkrainian composer Mykola Leontovych and also known as“The Ukrainian Bell Carol”. Throughout the composition, Leontovych used a four note motif as an ostinato which was taken from an ancient pagan Ukrainian New Year’s chant known in Ukrainian as “Shchedryk”.
Shedrik – Carol of the Bells A swallow visits a farmer and his family during the Christmas season and wishes them happiness and bounty in all things.
“Carol of the Bells” was premiered in December 1916 by a choral group made up of students at Kiev University.
It was introduced to Western audiences by the Ukrainian National Chorus during its concert tour of Europe and the Americas, where it premiered in the United States on October 5, 1921 at Carnegie Hall.
It was later adapted into an English language version by Peter Wilhousky in the 1930s, and to this day is performed and sung worldwide during the Christmas season.
An alternate English version (“Ring, Christmas Bells”) featuring more Nativity-based lyrics, written by Minna Louise Hohman in 1947, is also widely performed.
The original Ukrainian song is based on an old Slavic legend that every bell in the world rang in honour of Jesus on the night of his birth.
This song tells a story of a swallow flying into a household to sing of wealth that will come with the following spring.
The Ukrainian Christmas festive days according to the Julian calendar, start on 6 January, Christmas Eve, and end on 19 January, “Jordan” or Epiphany. Sviata Vecheria or “Holy Supper” on Christmas Eve is the central tradition of the Christmas Eve celebrations in Ukrainian homes.
The dinner table sometimes has a few wisps of hay on the embroidered table cloth as a reminder of the manger in Bethlehem.
Kutia (sweet grain pudding) is traditionally served at the Ukrainian Christmas dinner table.
It is often the first dish in the traditional twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper (also known as Svyaty Vechir) and is rarely served at other times of the year.
In Western Ukraine, especially in Carpathian Ruthenia, due to historical multi-culturism, Christmas can be observed twice—on 25 December and 7 January (Christmas Day), often irrespectively whether the family belongs to Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, (Roman) Catholic Church, one of the Ukrainian Orthodox Churches or one of the Protestant denominations. ______________________________________________________________
UNITED STATES and CANADA
Christmas is a widely celebrated holiday in the United States and Canada.
Christmas traditions are essentially the same as the UK and most of Europe, except in Quebec and other French speaking areas, with its réveillon and the Père Noël (“Father Christmas” in French).
The Celebration of Boxing Day on the day after Christmas Day is a tradition practiced in Canada, as it is in the Commonwealth.
Old Saint Nick, better known as Santa Claus is best known for living in the North Pole and entering people’s homes through their chimneys during the night before Christmas morning to leave gifts.
This innocence is best known on children, which Santa has a good list of children and a naughty list of children.
The children open their presents on Christmas morning.
Children on the Naughty list get coal in their stockings , while good children get presents in their stockings, and underneath their Christmas trees.
Stockings are hung above the chimney/mantle piece for Santa Claus to fill with presents.
A Christmas tree is set up, usually decorated with ornaments and tinsel, with something like a star, or an angel at the top of the tree.
Presents are left under the tree by Santa Claus.
“Joy to the World” – sung by Nat King Cole words: Isaac Watts based on Psalm 98 music: arranged by Lowell Mason based on themes in Handel’s Messiah
Many Christmas-related tourist attractions, such as the Rockefeller Center Christmas tree and elaborate animated department store windows in New York City are heavily visited by non-Christian tourists from all over the world.
Christmas is celebrated by almost everyone, no matter what religion the person has.
Christmas Day is a public and federal holiday in both the United States and Canada.
Christmas Day is the only day where almost all retailers, banks and government offices are closed.
“The little Drummer Boy” (Carol of the Drum), written by Katherine K. Davis – sung by Bob Seger
“Jingle Bells” is one of the best-known and commonly sung winter songs in the world.
It was written by James Lord Pierpont (1822–1893) and published under the title “One Horse Open Sleigh” in 1857.
Even though it is commonly refered to as a Christmas song, it was actually written and sung for Thanksgiving.
It was mistakenly branded as a Christmas song because being extremely popular at Thanksgiving, it was sung again around Christmas.
„Jingle Bells” – sung by Dean Martin
“White Christmas” is an Irving Berlin song reminiscing about an old-fashioned Christmas setting.
According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the version sung by Bing Crosby is the best-selling single of all time, with estimated sales in excess of 50 million copies worldwide.
Accounts vary as to when and where Berlin wrote the song.
One story is that he wrote it in 1940, poolside at the Biltmore hotel in Phoenix, Arizona.
He often stayed up all night writing — he told his secretary, “Grab your pen and take down this song.
I just wrote the best song I’ve ever written — heck, I just wrote the best song that anybody’s ever written!”
“White Christmas” – Bing Crosby from “The Holiday Inn” soundtrack, 1942
Peace on Earth is a one-reel 1939 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon short directed by Hugh Harman, about a post-apocalyptic world populated only by animals.
Two young squirrels ask their grandfather on Christmas Eve who the “men” are in the lyric “Peace on Earth, good will to men.”
The grandfather squirrel then tells them a history of the human race, focusing on the neverending wars men waged.
Ultimately the wars do end, with the deaths of the last men on Earth, two soldiers shooting each other.
Afterwards, the surviving animals discover a copy of the Bible in the ruins of a church.
Inspired by the book’s teachings, they decide to rebuild a society dedicated to peace and nonviolence (using the helmets of soldiers to construct houses).
Peace On Earth. Classic Christmas cartoon (MGM 1939)
The cartoon features an original song written to the tune of “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing”.
According to Hugh Harman’s obituary in the New York Times and Ben Mankiewicz, host of Cartoon Alley, the cartoon was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize.
However, it is not listed in the official Nobel Prize nomination database.
Mankiewicz also claimed that the cartoon was the first about a serious subject by a major studio.
In 1994, it was voted #40 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time by members of the animation field.
It was also nominated for the 1939 Academy Award for Short Subjects (Cartoons).
“Happy Xmas (War Is Over)” is a song written by John Lennon, released as a single in 1971 by John Lennon, Yoko Ono, and the Plastic Ono Band on Apple Records in the US and in the UK.
Although ostensibly a protest song about the Vietnam War, it has become a Christmas standard and has appeared on several Christmas albums.
Down to the present day, the song is the most prevalent “hymn of peace” throughout the world.
______________________________________________________________ I wish all who celebrate it
From December 20 – 28, 2011,Hanukkah (Chanukah), also known as theFestival of Lights, will be celebrated by Jews around the world. It is an eight-day holiday that starts on the 25th of the month of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur at any time from late November to late December in the Gregorian calendar, and continues till the 2nd of the month of Tevet. In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written חנֻכה or חנוכה, meaning „dedication“ or „consecration“. and is most commonly transliterated to English as Chanukah or Hanukkah. The holiday commemorates the miracle that happened after the Jew’s 164 B.C.E. victory over the Hellenist Syrians. Antiochus IV, the Greek King of Syria who outlawed Jews, had forbidden the observance of Judaism under penalty of death and had forced Jews to worship Greek gods. After the victory, a Temple lamp has been lighted and although the lamp had oil for only one day, it stayed miraculously lit for eight days until a new supply of oil could be prepared. To commemorate this miracle, Hannukah is observed by lighting one Hanukkah light of the Menorah (candelabrum) on each of the eight holiday nights, progressing to eight lights on the final night of Hanukkah. Hanukkah festivities include games, gift-giving to children and gathering for enjoying traditional foods. Hanukkah is a minor Jewish holiday and its religious significance is far less than that of Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Passover, and Shavu’ot. It is roughly equivalent to Purim in significance. On the other hand, Hanukkah is probably one of the best known Jewish holidays because of its proximity to Christmas. Some orthodox groups criticize the adoption of many Christmas customs, such as gift-giving and decoration, making Hanukkah the most secular holiday of the Jewish calendar.
Chanukah, Oh Chanukah! – A traditional Hanukkah song, sung by Theodore Bikel first in Yiddish, then in English, then in Hebrew
Hanukkah began to find new expression in the years leading up to the founding of the modern state of Israel and has developed into a holiday rich with historical significance, physical and supernatural miracle narratives, and a dialogue with Jewish history. ________________________________________________________________ History & Origins
The story of Chanukkah begins in the reign of Alexander the Great. Alexander conquered Syria, Egypt andPalestine, but allowed the lands under his control to continue observing their own religions and to retain a certain degree of autonomy. Under this relatively benevolent rule, many Jews assimilated much of Hellenistic culture, adopting the language, the customs and the dress of the Greeks. After Alexander’s death, the Greek Empire was formed into four divisions: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire expanding further east, south and west,the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon. ________________________________________________________________
Bust of Antiochius IV at the Altes Museum in Berlin
Antiochus IV
Antiochus IV ruled the Jews from 175-163 BC. He is remembered as a persecutor in the Jewish traditions associated with Hanukkah, including the books of Maccabees and the “Scroll of Antiochus”. Rabbinical sources refer to him as הרשע ,harasha (“the wicked”).
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, born c. 215 BC; died 163 BC) ruled the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 163 BC. He was a son of King Antiochus III the Great and the brother of Seleucus IV Philopator. His original name was Mithridates; he assumed the name Antiochus after he assumed the throne. Notable events during the reign of Antiochus IV include his near-conquest of Egypt, which led to a confrontation that became an origin of the metaphorical phrase, “line in the sand”, and the rebellion of the Jewish Maccabees. Antiochus IV assumed divine epithets, which no other Hellenistic king had done, such as Theos Epiphanes (“God Manifest”) and after his defeat of Egypt, Nikephoros (“Bearer of Victory”). But his often eccentric behavior, capricious actions and even insanity led some of his contemporaries to call him Epimanes (“The Mad One”), a word play on his title Epiphanes. ________________________________________________________________ Conquest of Egypt – “Line in the Sand”
When the guardians of King Ptolemy VI of Egypt demanded the return of Coele-Syria in 170 BC, Antiochus launched a preemptive strike against Egypt, conquering all but Alexandria and capturing King Ptolemy. To avoid alarming Rome, Antiochus allowed Ptolemy VI to continue ruling as a Puppet-king. Upon Antiochus’ withdrawal, the city of Alexandria chose a new King, one of Ptolemy’s brothers, also named Ptolemy (VIII Euergetes). Instead of fighting a civil war, the Ptolemy brothers agreed to rule Egypt jointly. In 168 BC Antiochus led a second attack on Egypt and also sent a fleet to capture Cyprus. Before reaching Alexandria, his path was blocked by a single, old Roman ambassador named Gaius Popillius Laenas, who delivered a message from the Roman Senate directing Antiochus to withdraw his armies from Egypt and Cyprus, or consider themselves in a state of war with the Roman Republic. Antiochus said he would discuss it with his council, whereupon the Roman envoy drew a line in the sand around him and said, “Before you cross this circle I want you to give me a reply for the Roman Senate” – implying that Rome would declare war if the King stepped out of the circle without committing to leave Egypt immediately. Weighing his options, Antiochus wisely decided to withdraw. Only then did Popillius agree to shake hands with him. ________________________________________________________________ Massacre in Jerusalem
While Antiochus was busy in Egypt, a rumor spread that he had been killed. The deposed High Priest Jason gathered a force of 1,000 soldiers and made a surprise attack on the city of Jerusalem. The High Priest appointed by Antiochus, Menelaus, was forced to flee Jerusalem during a riot. On the King’s return from Egypt in 167 BC enraged by his defeat, he attacked Jerusalem and restored Menelaus, then executed thousands of Jews.
“When these happenings were reported to the king, he thought that Judea was in revolt. Raging like a wild animal, he set out from Egypt and took Jerusalem by storm. He ordered his soldiers to cut down without mercy those whom they met and to slay those who took refuge in their house. There was a massacre of young and old, a killing of women and children, a slaughter of virgins and infants. In the space of three days, eighty thousand were lost, forty thousand meeting a violent death, and the same number being sold into slavery.” (2 Maccabees 5:11-14)
To consolidate his empire and strengthen his hold over the region, Antiochus decided to side with the Hellenized Jews by outlawing Jewish religious rites and traditions kept by observant Jews and by ordering the worship of Zeus as the supreme god. This was anathema to the Jews and when they refused, Antiochus sent an army to enforce his decree. Because of the resistance, the city was destroyed, many were slaughtered, and a military Greek citadel called the Acra was established.
“Not long after this the king sent an Athenian senator to force the Jews to abandon the customs of their ancestors and live no longer by the laws of God; also to profane the temple in Jerusalem and dedicate it to Olympian Zeus, and that on Mount Gerizim to Zeus the Hospitable, as the inhabitants of the place requested…They also brought into the temple things that were forbidden, so that the altar was covered with abominable offerings prohibited by the laws. A man could not keep the sabbath or celebrate the traditional feasts, nor even admit that he was a Jew. At the suggestion of the citizens of Ptolemais, a decree was issued ordering the neighboring Greek cities to act in the same way against the Jews: oblige them to partake of the sacrifices, and put to death those who would not consent to adopt the customs of the Greeks. It was obvious, therefore, that disaster impended. Thus, two women who were arrested for having circumcised their children were publicly paraded about the city with their babies hanging at their breasts and then thrown down from the top of the city wall. Others, who had assembled in nearby caves to observe the sabbath in secret, were betrayed to Philip and all burned to death.” (2 Maccabees 6:1-11)
________________________________________________________________ Rebellion of the Maccabees
Wojciech Stattler's "Machabeusze" ("The Maccabees"), 1844
Jewish historical documents near the time of the event (1 Macc, written c. 135 BC; 2 Macc, written c. 124 BC) painted the Maccabean Revolt as a national resistance of a foreign political and cultural oppression. Modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in a civil war between the traditionalist Jews in the country and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem (according to Joseph P. Schultz). What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices that the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned the traditional religion of a whole people
Two groups opposed Antiochus: a basically nationalistic group led by Mattathias the Hasmonean, a Jewish High Priest, and his son Judah Maccabee, and a religious traditionalist group known as the Chasidim, the forerunners of the Pharisees(no direct connection to the modern movement known as Chasidism).
They joined forces in a revolt against both the assimilation of the Hellenistic Jews and oppression by the Seleucid Greek government.
The fighting began in Modiin, a village not far from Jerusalem. A Greek officer and soldiers assembled the villagers, asking them to bow to an idol and eat the flesh of a pig, activities forbidden to Jews. The officer asked Mattathias to take part in the ceremony. He refused, and another villager stepped forward and offered to do it instead. Mattathias became outraged, took out his sword and killed the man, then killed the officer. His five sons and the other villagers then attacked and killed the soldiers. Mattathias’ family went into hiding in the nearby mountains, where many other Jews who wanted to fight the Greeks joined them. They attacked the Greek soldiers whenever possible. Eventually, the revolution was successful. Judah Maccabee and his soldiers went to the holy Temple, and were saddened that many things were missing or broken, including the golden menorah. They cleaned and repaired the Temple, and when they were finished, they decided to have a big dedication ceremony. For the celebration, the Maccabees wanted to light a menorah. They looked everywhere for oil, and found a small flask that contained only enough oil to light the menorah for one day. Miraculously, the oil lasted for eight days. This gave them enough time to obtain new oil to keep the menorah lit. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted by Judah Maccabee and his brothers Jochanan, Simeon, Eleatar and Jonathan to celebrate this event. Today Jews celebrate Hanukkah for eight days by lighting candles in a menorah every night, commemorating the eight-day miracle of the oil. ________________________________________________________________ Talmud
The Talmud (Hebrew, “instruction, learning”), is a central text of Judaism, in the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history. The Talmud has two components: the Mishna (c. 200 CE), the first written compendium of Judaism’s Oral Law, and the Gemara (c. 500 CE), a discussion of the Mishnah and related writings. The story of Hanukkah, along with its laws and customs, is entirely missing from the Mishna apart from several passing references. The Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the “Oral Torah” and the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism.
In the Gemara, the story of Hanukkah and the miracle of the oil that burned for eight days is described. In the Talmud, On the 25th of Kislev are the days of Hanukkah, which are eight… these were appointed a Festival with Hallel [prayers of praise] and thanksgiving. -Shabbat 21b, Babylonian Talmud - ________________________________________________________________
Hanukkah is celebrated by a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals. Hanukkah is not a “Sabbath-like” holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath. People go to work as usual, but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although, in Israel, schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah.
The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a special candelabrum, theHanukkah Menorah, that holds nine candles: one for each night, plus an extra light called Shamash (Hebrew, “servant”, “guard”) at a different height. The Shamash is used to light the other lights. The purpose of the extra light is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tracate Shabbat 21b-23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything else than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah story. This differs from Shabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the Shamash candle would be available and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some light the Shamash candle first and then use it to light the others.
On the first night, one candle is placed at the far right. The Shamash candle is lit and three Berakhot (blessings) are recited: l’hadlik neir (a general prayer over candles), she-asah nisim (a prayer thanking God for performing miracles for Jewish ancestors at this time), and she-hekhianu (a general prayer thanking God for allowing Jews to reach this time of year). The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. When the first candle is lit the Shamash candle is placed in its holder. On all subsequent nights, Jews recite only the first two blessings.
Hanukkah Celebration with Blessings and Songs:
Each night, another candle is added from right to left (like the Hebrew language). Candles are lit from left to right (to pay honor to the newer thing first). So all together, including the Shamash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with all nine candles (the 8 Hanukkah and the Shamash candle) on the last night, for a total of 44.
The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the “lighting of the house within”, but rather for the “illumination of the house without,” so that passers-by should see it and be reminded of the holiday’s miracle. Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room.
Hanukkah lights should burn for at least one half hour after it gets dark. Friday night presents a problem. Since candles may not be lit on the Shabbat itself, the candles must be lit before sunset. However, they must remain lit until the regular time—thirty minutes after nightfall—and inexpensive Hanukkah candles do not burn long enough to meet the requirement. A simple solution is to use longer candles, or the traditional oil lamps. In keeping with the above-stated prohibition, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first, followed by the Shabbat candles which signify its onset.
Menorahs come in all shapes and sizes. The only requirement is that the flames are separated enough so that they will not look too big and resemble a pagan bonfire. Ancient menorahs were made of clay. They consisted of small, pearl shaped vessels, each with its own wick, which were arranged side-by-side. Today’s menorah, which stands on a base from which the branches sprout, resembles the holy Temple’s menorah and started to appear towards the end of the Middle Ages.
After lighting the candles, singing various Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. ________________________________________________________________ Ma’oz Tzur
“Ma’oz Tzur” is a Jewish liturgical poem or piyyut. It is written in Hebrew, and is often sung on the holiday of Hanukkah, after lighting the festival lights. The name is a reference to the Hasmonean stronghold of Beth-zur. This Hebrew song is thought to have been written sometime in the 13th century. It was originally sung only in the home, but has been used in the synagogue since the nineteenth century or earlier. Of its six stanzas, often only the first stanza is sung (or the first and fifth). The hymn is named for its first two words in Hebrew, which mean “Stronghold of Rock” as a name or epithet for God. The first letters of the first five stanzas form an acrostic of the composer’s name,Mordechai.
Maoz Tzur – Bel Canto & Madrigal Women
In English, there is a popular non-literal translation that is sung, called “Rock of Ages”, which is based on the German version by Leopold Stein (1810–1882), and was written by Talmudic linguist Marcus Jastrow and Gustav Gottheil. ________________________________________________________________ Hanerot Halalu
During or after the lights are kindled the hymn Hanerot Halalu is recited. There are several differing versions; depending on regional traditions. Hanerot Halalu, is an ancient chant mentioned in the Talmud (Soferim 20:6),
Hanerot Halalu – By Baruch J. Cohon Arranged by Blanche Chass Performed by Liberty High School Concert Choir, 2004
Lyrics:
Al hatshu-ot ve’al hamilchamot She-asita la’avoteynu Bayamim hahem, bazman hazeh Al yedey kohanecha hakdoshim.
Vechol shmonat yemey Chanukah Hanerot halalu kodesh hem, Ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtamesh bahem Ela lirotam bilvad Kedai lehodot leshimcha Al nissecha veal nifleotecha ve-al yeshuotecha.
Translation: We light these lights For the miracles and the wonders, For the redemption and the battles That you made for our forefathers In those days at this season, Through your holy priests.
During all eight days of Chanukah These lights are sacred And we are not permitted to make Ordinary use of them, But only to look at them; In order to express thanks And praise to Your great Name For your miracles, Your wonders And your salvations.
Avraham Fried – Haneiros Halalu The following video includes the Channukah Menorah lighting in Mumbai India at the Chabad House (Nariman House), followed by Avraham Fried’s live singing of Haneiros Halalu broadcasted live around the world:
________________________________________________________________ Playing Dreidel
The Dreidel game was popular during the rule of Antiochus before the Maccabees’ revolt, a time when soldiers executed any Jews who were caught practicing their religion. When pious Jews gathered to study the Torah, they had the top ready in case they heard soliders approaching. If the soldiers appeared, they would hide the holy scriptures and pretend to play with the dreidel. In Israel the dreidel is called a sivivon. The Yiddish word “dreidel” is derived from the German word “drehen” (“turn”).
After lighting the Hanukkah menorah, it is customary in many homes to play the dreidel game. The dreidel is a four-sided spinning top with a Hebrew letter inscribed on each side: Nun, Gimel, Hey (Hay) and Shin. These letters stand for the Hebrew phrase “Nes Gadol Hayah Sham”, a great miracle happened there, referring to the miracle of the oil.
The letters also stand for the Yiddish words nit (nothing), gantz (all), halb (half) and shtell(put), which are the rules of the game.
S’vivon Sov Sov Sov – Dreidel, Spin and Spin A classic “Dreidel Song” here performed by Moshe Skier Band
Each player receives a given number of coins (real or of chocolate), nuts, raisins, candies or other markers, and places one marker in the “pot” (kupah or kitty). The first player spins the dreidel, and depending on which side the dreidel falls on, either wins a marker from the pot or gives up part of his stash. Each player in turn spins the dreidel. When the dreidel falls, it will fall on one of the 4 letters. According to the letter, the following will happen: Nun – no win / no lose, Gimmel – take all (from the kitty) Hey – take half (from the kitty) Shin – lose (what you deposited). Anyone losing all funds is out of the game.The game may last until one person has won everything or when it is agreed to stop.
One of the most well known in English-speaking countries is “The Dreidel Song” (Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel) here performed by Harrison Avenue School Kindergarten Class of 2007
Some Jewish commentators ascribe symbolic significance to the markings on the dreidel. One commentary, for example, connects the four letters with the four exiles to which the nation of Israel was historically subject: Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. ________________________________________________________________ Gift-Giving & Hanukkah Gelt
Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.
In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter half of the twentieth century, including large numbers of secular Jews, who wanted a Jewish alternative to the Christmas celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews (literally: “German Jews”) to give “gelt” (Yiddish: money; refers to money as well as chocolate coins) to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has changed into gifts in order to prevent Jewish children from feeling left out of the Christmas gift giving. Many families exchange gifts each night. Hanukkah Gelt is often distributed to children to enhance their enjoyment of the holiday. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or other relatives may give larger sums as an official Hanukkah gift. In Israel, Hanukkah gelt is known as dmei Hanukkah.
According to Rabbi Abraham P. Bloch “The tradition of giving money (Chanukah gelt) to children is of long standing. The custom had its origin in the seventeenth-century practice of Polish Jewry to give money to their small children for distribution to their teachers. In time, as children demanded their due, money was also given to children to keep for themselves. Teen-age boys soon came in for their share. According to Magen Avraham (18th Cent.), it was the custom for poor yeshiva students to visit homes of Jewish benefactors who dispensed Chanukah money (Orach Chaim 670). The rabbis approved of the custom of giving money on Chanukah because it publicized the story of the miracle of the oil.”
Twentieth-century American chocolatiers picked up on the gift/coin concept by creating chocolate gelt. ________________________________________________________________ Dairy Foods – Judith andHolofernes
At Hanukkah it is a minor custom to eat dairy foods. This tradition has its roots in the story ofJudith. The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), records that,Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews is cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes’ soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened, and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated.
Generally women are exempt in Jewish law from time bound positive commandments, however the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles “for they too were involved in the miracle.” This account of Judith’s involvement with the events of Chanukah serves to explain the requirement of women to participate in the rituals of Hanukkah and the origins of the custom of eating dairy during the holiday. ________________________________________________________________
The most popular themes throughout the Hanukkah dishes are foods fried or baked in oil. The oil reminds of the oil which burned eight days instead of one. Latkes are potato pancakes made from grated potatoes mixed with eggs, onions, and flour, then fried in vegetable oil. The texture is crispy on the outside and tender within. They’re served hot and often dipped in apple sauce or sour cream. The Maccabbee soliders ate latkes made from cheese, vegetables, or fruits which were brought to them on the battlefields. However, they didn’t eat potato latkes, as potatoes weren’t available until the 16th century. ________________________________________________________________ SUFGANIYOT – Hanukkah JellyDoughnuts
Sufganiyot are jelly doughnuts without the hole. They’re dropped into hot oil without being shaped and come out in odd, funny shapes, then covered in powdered sugar and/or cinnamon. Sufganiyot are particularly popular in Israel, where they are sold on stands in the streets over a month before Hanukkah begins. ________________________________________________________________
Mi Yimalel (Who can retell) – A traditional Hanukkah song here performed by Craig Taubman, The Tribe & Alberto Mizzahi at the Live Concert “Lights”:
“Lights” is a concert celebration of Hanukkah featuring some of the most beloved and exciting Jewish artists in the world. Representing a wide array of musical styles from cantorial to rock ‘n roll, Sephardic to folk and bluegrass, Lights is an experience that blends colorful Jewish traditions of yesterday, while creating new traditions for today and tomorrow.
Lich’vod Hachanukkah – by Chaim Nachman Bialik a traditional Chanukah song sung by THE WESTERN WIND and Fran Avni
Hayyim Nahman Bialik (Hebrew: חיים נחמן ביאליק) (January 9, 1873-July 4, 1934), also Chaim or Haim, was a Jewish poet who wrote in Hebrew. Bialik was one of the pioneers of modern Hebrew poets and came to be recognized as Israel’s national poet. Bialik wrote most of his poems using “Ashkenazi” pronunciation, while Hebrew in Israel uses the Sephardi pronunciation. In consequence, Bialik’s poems are rarely recited in the meter in which they were written.
________________________________________________________________ I wish all Jews around the world HAPPY HANUKKAH! Chag Chanukkah Sameach!
pronunciation (help·info) (also Chittor, Chittaur, or Chittaurgarh) is a city and a municipality in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of theBanas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgharh District and a former capital of the Sisodia clans of Rajputs of Mewar. The city of Chittaurgarh is located on the banks of river Gambhiri and Berach. The district was bifurcated and a new district namely Pratap Garh was created with certain portion taken from Udaipur district in the newly created district of Pratap Garh.
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24.88°N 74.63°E.[3] It has an average elevation of 394 metres (1292 ft).
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Sweden: Jultomten (“The Yule/Christmas Gnome”)
ITALY
In Italy, presents are also brought by La Befana, who arrives in the night to fill children’s stockings. 
Snegurochka is a character in Russian fairy tales.
The story of Chanukkah begins in the reign of Alexander the Great. Alexander conquered Syria, Egypt andPalestine, but allowed the lands under his control to continue observing their own religions and to retain a certain degree of autonomy. Under this relatively benevolent rule, many Jews assimilated much of Hellenistic culture, adopting the language, the customs and the dress of the Greeks.
Conquest of Egypt – “Line in the Sand”
Massacre in Jerusalem
and a religious traditionalist group known as the Chasidim, the forerunners of the Pharisees(no direct connection to the modern movement known as Chasidism).
Talmud
Menorahs come in all shapes and sizes.
Playing Dreidel
Gift-Giving & Hanukkah Gelt
Dairy Foods – Judith andHolofernes
SUFGANIYOT – Hanukkah JellyDoughnuts
I wish all Jews around the world
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